Mentoring programs to prevent youth delinquency
Mentoring programs focused on reducing delinquency pair youth at risk with adult mentors to develop relationships and spend time together at regular meetings for an extended period. Youth at risk for delinquent behavior have individual characteristics (e.g., showing conduct disorders or antisocial behavior) and/or ecological characteristics (e.g., living in neighborhoods with high rates of poverty or crime, coming from abusive families, experiencing parental incarceration) that increase the likelihood of delinquency1. Mentors have greater knowledge, skills, or experience than mentees, but are not in professional or pre-determined relationships with the mentees such as parent-child or teacher-student1. Implementation varies significantly from program to program. Mentors can be paid staff or volunteers. Mentoring programs can occur during or after school and can take place at school or offsite2.
What could this strategy improve?
Expected Benefits
Our evidence rating is based on the likelihood of achieving these outcomes:
Reduced delinquent behavior
Reduced aggression
Potential Benefits
Our evidence rating is not based on these outcomes, but these benefits may also be possible:
Reduced drug use
Reduced alcohol use
Reduced recidivism
What does the research say about effectiveness?
There is strong evidence that mentoring programs reduce delinquent behavior1, 3, 4 and aggression1 among youth at risk in the short-term. Such programs may prevent youth from being involved in the juvenile justice system4. Effects can vary significantly depending on program characteristics and implementation quality; programs that make emotional support or mentee advocacy a key component appear to have greater effects than programs that emphasize modeling or teaching1, 5. Programs that focus on behavior problems, provide pre-match training for mentors, are long-term and school-based also have greater effects3. More research is needed to confirm long-term effects, especially during adulthood5.
Mentoring programs may reduce alcohol use and drug use, including marijuana, among youth at risk in some cases1, 3, 6, 7, 8. Youth mentees in community-based Big Brothers and Big Sisters mentoring programs reported reductions in substance use and arrest 18 months after participation9. Elementary school students at risk participating in a four-year long community-based mentoring program that began in kindergarten or first grade show reduced problem behavior and improved positive behavior in school10.
Mentoring programs may reduce recidivism for youth who display initial delinquent behaviors or are already involved with the juvenile justice system in some circumstances4. Advocacy-based mentoring programs and group mentoring for youth involved in the juvenile justice system have been shown to reduce re-arrests, re-convictions, and misconduct11, 12, 13. One Ohio-based study indicates that mentoring programs had no impact on recidivism for youth on probation or parole; however, a majority of those participants did not complete their mentoring programs14.
Enhanced community-based mentoring that provides additional structured activities based on special curriculum for youth from disadvantaged backgrounds may be more effective in reducing delinquent behavior among male mentees compared to standard community-based mentoring. For female mentees, the impact is not different15. Enhanced mentoring (i.e., providing pre- and post-match mentor training, mentoring activities, monitoring and coaching, and setting specific goals) is more effective than standard mentoring to reduce substance use and behavior problems, build longer and stronger mentor-mentee relationships, and address the needs of mentees, especially for children of parents in the criminal justice system16, 17. Youth entering school-based mentoring programs with adequate relationships with their parents may benefit more than those with very strong or very poor parental relationships18.
CDC researchers recommend that programs set program-wide goals while mentors and mentees set individual session goals. In choosing mentors, programs should clearly define qualifications, and consider mentors’ commitment, abilities, and life circumstances19. Mentors’ race or socio-economic status may not affect outcomes20; frequent interaction21, long durations in a mentor-mentee relationship, and high levels of trust and emotional bond with a mentor have been associated with stronger academic and behavioral outcomes5, 20. Researchers recommend mentor training and support, and implementation with high fidelity for program effectiveness4. Mentor training that teaches positive coping strategies (e.g., emotional regulation, conflict resolution, future orientation, and active listening) can help mentors build supportive relationships with youth at risk22.
How could this strategy advance health equity? This strategy is rated potential to decrease disparities: supported by some evidence.
There is some evidence that mentoring programs for youth at risk have the potential to reduce disparities in delinquent behavior among youth. Youth facing environmental risk factors such as low family income benefit more from mentoring than youth with no risk factors or only individual risk factors such as academic challenges32, 33. Youth identifying as racial or ethnic minorities are at a higher risk for delinquency because they are more likely to experience adversity related to concentrated poverty, neighborhood violence, unemployment, social marginalization, and discrimination34. Mentoring programs appear to have greater impacts for male youth, youth of color, and younger youth; male youth are more likely to engage in delinquent behavior and crime than female youth6. Participation in the Arches Transformative Mentoring program, group mentoring as part of efforts to reduce racial inequities in the justice system for young men of color (ages 16-24) in New York City, has been shown to reduce reconvictions13.
Parental incarceration is an adverse childhood experience that leads to a higher risk of poor child development through negative consequences related to family instability, stress, and stigmatization; children of parents involved in the justice system are more likely to display external behavior problems than their peers whose parents are not in the justice system16, 17. Youth in foster care experience less secure and often negative, abusive relationships with adults as well as frequent placement moves that affect youth mental and behavioral health35. Mentoring relationships may support youth experiencing parental incarceration and youth in foster care16, 35; however, mentees in foster care are more likely to close mentoring relationships prematurely than mentees not in foster care35. A 2014 national survey estimates nine million youth at risk (ages 8-18) never had a mentor though their mentoring needs are high. To close this mentoring gap, researchers recommend expanding federal and state policies that advance quality mentoring and supporting private sector engagement in mentoring36.
What is the relevant historical background?
The modern development of mentoring for youth at risk stemmed from the establishment of Big Brothers Big Sisters (BBBS, formerly Big Brothers) and a few other organizations in the early 1900s when more states adopted juvenile courts37. In response to the increased number of youth in the New York City court, the BBBS movement started in 1904 with the idea that caring adults could help prevent youth delinquent behavior38. The first U.S. juvenile court in Cook County, Chicago also assigned probation officers to provide guidance and support to youth detained in the court4. Mentoring is an attractive way to prevent youth delinquent behavior given its low cost and ability to use local resources and adult volunteers4.
Adolescents exposed to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) in early childhood (ages 5-7) are more likely to display delinquent behavior because ACEs increase trauma and stress, and influence an early start of childhood misconduct39. Individuals with lower incomes, less education, and those who are LGBTQ+, multiracial, Black, or Hispanic are more likely to be exposed to ACEs than individuals with higher incomes, more education, and those who are cisgender, heterosexual, or white40.
Equity Considerations
- Who is at risk for delinquency in your community? Which youth populations are most affected? How many youth express mentoring needs but do not have services?
- How can you enhance coordination between mentoring programs, schools, and juvenile justice settings to address unmet needs for mentoring among youth at risk?
- How can state and local mentoring-related policies be expanded to advance high-quality, long-term mentoring programs serving more youth from disadvantaged backgrounds?
Implementation Examples
Mentoring is one of the most commonly used interventions to prevent and reduce delinquent behavior1. Examples of mentoring programs include Big Brothers Big Sisters of America23, Friends for Youth 1 to 1 Mentoring24, Achievement Mentoring25, and Fostering Healthy Futures for children and adolescents involved in the child welfare system26. There are mentoring program guidelines and resources for immigrant and refugee youth27, tribal youth28, and LGBTQ+ youth29.
MENTOR is another non-profit organization that works with many partners around the country to support over 5,000 mentoring programs30. MENTOR and its network of affiliates also support National Mentoring Month, to increase awareness about the impacts mentors can have on youth and encourage civic leaders and stakeholders to prioritize and invest in mentoring programs and opportunities31.
Implementation Resources
‡ Resources with a focus on equity.
MENTOR - MENTOR. MENTOR: The national mentoring partnership that promotes, advocates, and is a resource for mentoring.
MENTOR 2016 - MENTOR. Elements of effective practice for mentoring. Alexandria: MENTOR/National Mentoring Partnership; 2016.
MENTOR-LGBTQ‡ - Garringer M, Rummell C, Bourgoin J, Bardwell H, Mitchell J. LGBTQ supplement to the elements of effective practice for mentoring. MENTOR, Big Brothers Big Sisters of America; 2019.
TYRC-Tribal mentoring‡ - Tribal Youth Resource Center (TYRC). Tribal mentoring models and approaches for native youth wellness.
NMRC-Immigrant‡ - National Mentoring Resource Center (NMRC). Mentoring Immigrant and Refugee Youth: Guide and Handout. MENTOR: The National Mentoring Partnership; 2009.
OJJDP-Mentoring - Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP). Mentoring resources.
CDC-Thornton 2002 - Thornton TN. Strategies to prevent youth violence: Mentoring strategy. In Chapter 2 of: Craft CA, Dahlberg LL, Lynch BS, Baer K, eds. Best practices of youth violence prevention: A sourcebook for community action. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); 2002:119-207.
Footnotes
* Journal subscription may be required for access.
1 Campbell-Tolan 2013 - Tolan P, Henry D, Schoeny M, et al. Mentoring interventions to affect juvenile delinquency and associated problems: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews. 2013:9.
2 Mac Iver 2017 - Mac Iver MA, Sheldon S, Naeger S, Clark E. Mentoring students back on-track to graduation: Program results from five communities. Education and Urban Society. 2017;49(7):643-675.
3 Raposa 2019 - Raposa EB, Rhodes J, Stams GJJM, et al. The effects of youth mentoring programs: A meta-analysis of outcome studies. Journal of Youth Adolescence. 2019;48:423-443.
4 NMRC-Hawkins 2020 - Hawkins S, Karcher MJ, Stewart K, DuBois DL. Mentoring for preventing and reducing delinquent behavior among youth. Boston, MA; National Mentoring Resource Center (NMRC): 2020.
5 DuBois 2021 - DuBois DL. Mentoring programs for youth: A promising intervention for delinquency prevention. NIJ Journal. 2021;(283):1-11.
6 NMRC-Erdem 2020 - Erdem G, Kaufman MR. Mentoring for preventing and reducing substance use and associated risks among youth. Boston, MA: National Mentoring Resource Center (NMRC); 2020.
7 Matz 2014 - Matz AK. Commentary: Do youth mentoring programs work? A review of the empirical literature. OJJDP Journal of Juvenile Justice. 2014;3(2):83-101.
8 Thomas 2013 - Thomas RE, Lorenzetti DL, Spragins W. Systematic review of mentoring to prevent or reduce alcohol and drug use by adolescents. Academic Pediatrics. 2013;13(4):292-299.
9 DuBois 2022 - DuBois DL, Herrera C, Rivera J, Brechling V, Root S. Randomized controlled trial of the effects of the Big Brothers Big Sisters community-based mentoring program on crime and delinquency: Interim report of findings. University of Illinois Chicago; 2022.
10 Eddy 2017 - Eddy JM, Martinez Jr CR, Grossman JB, et al. A randomized controlled trial of a long-term professional mentoring program for children at risk: Outcomes across the first 5 years. Prevention Science. 2017;18:899-910.
11 Karcher 2016 - Karcher MJ, Johnson DA. Final technical report: An evaluation of advocacy-based mentoring as a treatment intervention for chronic delinquency. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP); 2016.
12 Urban-Cramer 2018 - Cramer L, Lynch M, Lipman M, Yu L, Astone NM. Evaluation report on NYC's Advocate, Intervene, Mentor program. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute; 2018.
13 Urban-Lynch 2018 - Lynch M, Astone NM, Collazos J, Lipman M, Esthappan S. Arches Transformative Mentoring program: An implementation and impact evaluation in New York City. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute; 2018.
14 Duriez 2017 - Duriez SA, Sullivan C, Sullivan CJ, Manchak SM, Latessa EJ. Mentoring best practices research: Effectiveness of juvenile mentoring programs on recidivism. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP); 2017.
15 Brezina 2016 - Brezina T, Kuperminc G, Tekin E. Future selves, motivational capital, and mentoring toward college: Assessing the impact of an enhanced mentoring program for at-risk youth. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP); 2016.
16 Stelter 2023 - Stelter RL, Stump KN, Rhodes JE, Kupersmidt JB. A randomized controlled trial of enhanced mentoring program practices for children of incarcerated caregivers: Assessing impacts on youth and match outcomes. Journal of Community Psychology. 2023;51(8):3216-3242.
17 Stump 2018 - Stump KN, Kupersmidt JB, Stelter RL, Rhodes JE. Mentoring program enhancements supporting effective mentoring of children of incarcerated parents. American Journal of Community Psychology. 2018;62(1-2):163-174.
18 Schwartz 2011 - Schwartz SEO, Rhodes JE, Chan CS, Herrera C. The impact of school-based mentoring on youths with different relational profiles. Developmental Psychology. 2011;47(2):450-462.
19 CDC-Thornton 2002 - Thornton TN. Strategies to prevent youth violence: Mentoring strategy. In Chapter 2 of: Craft CA, Dahlberg LL, Lynch BS, Baer K, eds. Best practices of youth violence prevention: A sourcebook for community action. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); 2002:119-207.
20 Gaddis 2012 - Gaddis SM. What’s in a relationship? An examination of social capital, race and class in mentoring relationships. Social Forces. 2012;90(4):1237-1269.
21 Miller 2012 - Miller JM, Barnes JC, Miller HV, McKinnon L. Exploring the link between mentoring program structure & success rates: Results from a national survey. American Journal of Criminal Justice. 2013;38(3):439-456.
22 Wesely 2017 - Wesely JK, Dzoba NP, Miller HV, Rasche CE. Mentoring at-risk youth: An examination of strain and mentor response strategies. American Journal of Criminal Justice. 2017;42:198-217.
23 BBBS - Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBS).
24 FFY Mentoring - Friends for Youth (FFY). 1-to-1 Mentoring: A mentoring program built on friendship.
25 CSS-AM - Center for Supportive Schools (CSS). Achievement Mentoring (AM).
26 FHF - Fostering Healthy Futures (FHF). Mentoring and skills training to empower youth.
27 NMRC-Immigrant - National Mentoring Resource Center (NMRC). Mentoring Immigrant and Refugee Youth: Guide and Handout. MENTOR: The National Mentoring Partnership; 2009.
28 TYRC-Tribal mentoring - Tribal Youth Resource Center (TYRC). Tribal mentoring models and approaches for native youth wellness.
29 MENTOR-LGBTQ - Garringer M, Rummell C, Bourgoin J, Bardwell H, Mitchell J. LGBTQ supplement to the elements of effective practice for mentoring. MENTOR, Big Brothers Big Sisters of America; 2019.
30 MENTOR - MENTOR. MENTOR: The national mentoring partnership that promotes, advocates, and is a resource for mentoring.
31 MENTOR-Mentoring month - MENTOR. National mentoring month.
32 DuBois 2002 - DuBois DL, Holloway BE, Valentine JC, Cooper H. Effectiveness of mentoring programs for youth: A meta-analytic review. American Journal of Community Psychology. 2002;30(2):157-197.
33 DuBois 2011 - DuBois DL, Portillo N, Rhodes JE, Silverthorn N, Valentine JC. How effective are mentoring programs for youth? A systematic assessment of the evidence. Psychological Science Public Interest. 2011;12(2):57-91.
34 Case 2017 - Case AD. A critical-positive youth development model for intervening with minority youth at risk for delinquency. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 2017;87(5):510-519.
35 Stelter 2018 - Stelter RL, Kupersmidt JB, Stump KN. Supporting mentoring relationships of youth in foster care: Do program practices predict match length? American Journal of Community Psychology. 2018;61(3-4): 398-410.
36 Bruce 2014 - Bruce M, Bridgeland J. The mentoring effect: Young people’s perspectives on the outcomes and availability of mentoring. Washington, D.C.: Civic Enterprises, Hart Research Associates, MENTOR; 2014.
37 EY MENTOR 2019 - EY and MENTOR. Mentoring: At the crossroads of education, business and community. 2019.
38 BBBS History - Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBS). History that spans more than a century.
39 Jackson 2023a - Jackson DB, Jones MS, Semenza DC, Testa A. Adverse childhood experiences and adolescent delinquency: A theoretically informed investigation of mediators during middle childhood. International Journal of Environment Research and Public Health. 2023;20(4):3202.
40 Giano 2020 - Giano Z, Wheeler DL, Hubach RD. The frequencies and disparities of adverse childhood experiences in the U.S. BMC Public Health. 2020;20(1327).
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